Lutheran
The Lutheran Church originated in the early 16th Century when Martin Luther, a German friar and theology professor, criticized the Roman Catholic Church’s use of indulgences by posting his Ninety-Five Theses, a list of complaints against the Catholic Church in 1517, resulting in his excommunication in 1521, and sparking the Protestant Reformation. This movement spread, thanks to the protection of Frederick the Wise, Prince of Saxony, and the invention of the printing press.
Early leaders of the Lutheran Church include Martin Luther himself and Philip Melanchthon, a Lutheran theologian. They were also influenced by the teachings of the Early Church fathers, such as Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Tertullian, Origen, Cyprian, Anthony of Egypt, Athanasius, etc.
Lutheran theology is characterized by the belief in salvation by grace alone, through faith alone, based on Scripture alone. It rejects the authority of the Pope and ecclesiastical traditions in favour of the Bible (sola Scriptura), and insists that human reconciliation with God is effected solely by divine grace (sola gratia), which is appropriated solely by faith (sola fide).
The Five Solas are a set of Christian theological principles that emerged from the Protestant Reformation. They are held by theologians and clergy to be central to the doctrines of justification and salvation as taught by the Lutheran and Calvinist branches of Protestantism.
1. Sola Scriptura (Scripture Alone)
2. Sola Fide (Faith Alone)
3. Sola Gratia (Grace Alone)
4. Solus Christus (Christ Alone)
5. Soli Deo Gloria (Glory to God Alone)
These principles were not systematically articulated together as a set of five until the 20th century. The Reformers, such as Martin Luther and John Calvin, are known to have clearly stated only two of the five solas. Even today, there are differences as to what constitutes the solae, how many there are, and how to interpret them to reflect the Reformers beliefs. Despite this, they serve as a good summary of the Reformed faith.
Several church movements arose from Lutheranism, each with its own interpretation of Luther’s teachings. Here are a few:
- Anabaptists and Mennonites: Anabaptist were founded by Menno Simons in the 16th century. These groups diverged from Lutheranism in their views on baptism and the nature of the church. Anabaptists believe that baptism is valid only when candidates freely confess their faith in Christ and request to be baptized, as opposed to the baptism of infants who are not able to make such a conscious decision, and Mennonites are a group of Anabaptist Christian church communities who are known for their commitment to non-violence and pacifism and who generally practice a lifestyle without certain elements of modern technology. The Amish arose out of the Anabaptist movement, and many emigrated to the USA and Canada to escape persecution in Europe.
- Anglicanism: Originating from the English Reformation in the 16th century, Anglicanism shares some similarities with Lutheranism but also has distinct differences, particularly in church governance and liturgy.
- Pietism: This was a movement within Lutheranism that began in the late 17th century. It emphasized personal faith over doctrinal precision, and it influenced later movements like Methodism.
- Methodism: This movement emerged in the 18th century. While both Lutheranism and Methodism emphasize grace and faith for salvation, they differ in their acceptance of sacraments and their views on predestination.
- Presbyterianism: This movement evolved from Calvinist traditions during the Swiss Reformation. It differs from Lutheranism in its understanding of predestination and church governance.
These movements agreed with Luther’s teachings to varying degrees. Some, like Methodism and Presbyterianism, developed distinct doctrines that represented departures from Luther’s original teachings. Others, like Pietism, represented more of an emphasis shift within Lutheranism itself. It’s important to note that even within these movements, there is a range of beliefs and practices, reflecting the diversity of the Protestant tradition.
Calvinism
Calvinism originated during the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century. It was formulated by the influential theologian John Calvin and has since become a significant branch of Protestant Christianity. Calvinism started in Switzerland when Huldrych Zwingli began preaching what would become the first form of the Reformed doctrine in Zürich in 1519.
The main differences between Calvinism and Lutheranism are their contrasting beliefs on atonement, salvation, predestination, sovereignty, and grace:
Atonement: Calvinism teaches the concept of limited atonement, which means that Jesus’ sacrifice on the cross was specifically for those predestined for salvation. Lutheranism believes that Christ’s sacrifice was enough for all and can be received by anyone with faith.
Salvation and Predestination: Calvinism emphasizes predestination and the idea that God has already chosen who will receive salvation. Lutheranism teaches that salvation is freely offered to all who believe in Jesus Christ and is received through grace.
Sovereignty: Calvinism believes in the supreme authority of religion. Lutheranism does not hold this view.
Grace: Both denominations stress the importance of faith and the role of God’s grace in salvation.
Several Protestant churches follow the doctrines of Calvinism. These include the Presbyterian Church, the Reformed Church, the United Church of Christ, and some Baptist churches. Variants of Calvinism are seen in three main groupings: Reformed churches, Presbyterian churches, and Congregational churches. Reformed Baptists, Particular Baptists and Calvinistic Baptists are Baptists that hold to a Calvinist soteriology (salvation belief).
The Dutch Reformed Church
This church was founded in 1571 during the Protestant Reformation in the Calvinist tradition. It was shaped theologically by John Calvin and other major Reformed theologians. The church originated in Emden, County of East Frisia in the Holy Roman Empire, and it separated from the Catholic Church in the Netherlands. The Dutch Reformed Church spread to various parts of the world, including the United States, South Africa, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Brazil, through Dutch colonization.
The fundamental beliefs of the Dutch Reformed Church are based on the theology of John Calvin. Some of the key beliefs include:
Total Depravity of Man: This belief states that as a consequence of the Fall of Man, every person born into the world is enslaved to the service of sin.
Unconditional Election: This is the belief that God’s choice from eternity of those whom he will bring to himself is not based on foreseen virtue, merit, or faith in those people.
Limited Atonement: This belief, also known as “particular redemption” or “definite atonement”, asserts that Jesus’s substitutionary atonement was definite and certain in its purpose and in what it accomplished.
Irresistible Grace: This doctrine holds that the saving grace of God is effectually applied to those whom he has determined to save (that is, the elect) and overcomes their resistance to obeying the call of the gospel, bringing them to a saving faith.
Perseverance of the Saints: This belief asserts that since God is sovereign and his will cannot be frustrated by humans or anything else, those whom God has called into communion with himself will continue in faith until the end.
These beliefs are often summarized by the acronym TULIP (Total depravity, Unconditional election, Limited atonement, Irresistible grace, Perseverance of the saints). The Dutch Reformed Church also follows the Canons of Dort, which became one of its doctrinal foundations. It is important to note that the interpretation and emphasis of these beliefs can vary among different congregations within the Dutch Reformed Church.
Calvinism, also known as Reformed theology, is a significant branch of Protestantism that originated from the teachings of the French theologian John Calvin during the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century. It emphasizes the sovereignty of God and the absolute authority of Scripture.
Here are some key differences between Calvinism and other Protestant denominations:
Predestination: Calvinists believe in the doctrine of predestination, which asserts that before the foundation of the world, God has chosen certain individuals for salvation and others for damnation. They argue that humanity is inherently sinful and incapable of choosing God on their own, and it is only through God’s sovereign grace that anyone can be saved.
Limited Atonement: Calvinism teaches the concept of limited atonement, which means that Jesus’ sacrifice on the cross was specifically for those predestined for salvation. This is in contrast to other Protestant denominations that believe Christ’s sacrifice was enough for all and can be received by anyone with faith.
Irresistible Grace: Calvinism holds that the saving grace of God is effectually applied to those whom he has determined to save (that is, the elect) and overcomes their resistance to obeying the call of the gospel, bringing them to a saving faith.
Perseverance of the Saints: Calvinists assert that since God is sovereign and his will cannot be frustrated by humans or anything else, those whom God has called into communion with himself will continue in faith until the end.
It’s important to note that while Calvinism is indeed a significant branch of Protestantism, Protestantism encompasses a broader spectrum of beliefs and denominations. For example, Lutheranism, another major branch of the Reformation, differs from Calvinism on the spiritual real presence of Christ in the Lord’s Supper, theories of worship, the purpose and meaning of baptism, and the use of God’s law for believers, among other points.
Differences between conservative, liberal, and progressive theologies
Conservative Theology:
* Emphasizes traditional orthodox doctrines such as the inerrancy of the Bible, the virgin birth, and the bodily resurrection of Jesus.
* Typically interprets the Bible literally according to genre and believes it to be the inerrant word of God.
* Tends to hold conservative views on issues like abortion, same-sex marriage, and gender roles. Prioritizes personal morality and traditional family values.
* Often features a variety of worship styles, liturgy, hymns, and modern music. Emphasizes sacraments and formal church structures.
Liberal / Progressive Theology:
* More open to reinterpreting or questioning traditional doctrines. Often view the Bible as a historical and cultural document, rather than as inerrant.
* Often interprets the Bible more metaphorically or allegorically, showing less interest in literary and cultural context.
* Tends to hold liberal views on social issues, emphasizing social justice, inclusivity, and equality. May prioritize issues like poverty, climate change, and human rights.
* May feature contemporary worship styles, with a focus on community engagement and social action. Less emphasis on formal liturgy.
It’s important to note that these are broad categories and there can be significant variation within each group. Also, the terms “liberal” and “progressive” are often used interchangeably in this context, but some might draw distinctions between them.
Anglican Church
The Anglican Church, also known as the Church of England, was founded in 1534 by King Henry VIII’s Act of Supremacy, which pronounced the Church of England independent of the Catholic Church in Rome. This marked the roots of Anglicanism as one of the main branches of Protestantism sprouting from the 16th century Reformation. The separation was initially over a personal dispute when King Henry VIII of England was denied papal support for the annulling of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. In response, both the king and the English parliament rejected papal primacy and asserted the supremacy of the crown over the church.
Theologically, Anglican beliefs take a middle position between Protestantism and Catholicism and reflect a balance of Scripture, tradition, and reason. Anglicanism is loosely organized in the Anglican Communion, a worldwide family of religious bodies that represents the offspring of the Church of England and recognizes the archbishop of Canterbury as its nominal head. It prizes traditional worship and structure but operates autonomously and flexibly in different locales.
Anglicans believe that there is only one God, but there are three elements to this one God: God the Father, God the Son, God the Holy Spirit. They believe that human beings’ decision to reject this eternal God and live according to their own standards (sin) causes a relational breakdown between them.
The Book of Common Prayer, a compilation of the church’s liturgical forms originally issued in 1549, represents the faith’s independence from Rome and remains the hallmark of Anglican identity. The prayer book derives from ancient English spirituality and embodies the uniqueness of Anglican Christianity. Note that Anglican churches are diverse, and beliefs can vary among different Anglican denominations.
Baptist Church
Historians trace the earliest Baptist church to 1609 in Amsterdam, Dutch Republic with English Separatist John Smyth as its pastor. In accordance with his reading of the New Testament, he rejected baptism of infants and instituted baptism only of believing adults. Baptist practice spread to England, where the General Baptists considered Christ’s atonement to extend to all people, while the Particular Baptists believed that it extended only to the elect.
Baptists share the basic beliefs of most Protestants but insist that only believers should be baptized and that it should be done by immersion rather than by the sprinkling or pouring of water. This view is shared by others who are not Baptists.
Baptists generally subscribe to the doctrines of soul competency (the responsibility and accountability of every person before God), sola fide (salvation by faith alone), sola scriptura (scripture alone as the rule of faith and practice) and congregationalist church government. Baptists generally recognize two ordinances: baptism and communion.
Baptists believe that the Bible teaches that baptism symbolizes that a person has been saved and is not itself a means of salvation. It does not wash away sin but symbolizes the forgiveness of sin through faith in Christ.
Baptists also believe in the Trinity, which is the concept of one God who reveals himself as God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. The doctrine of a believer’s church is a key belief in Baptist life. Members come into the church personally, individually, and freely. Baptist churches are diverse, and beliefs can vary among different Baptist denominations.
Methodist Church
The Methodist Church traces its roots back to the early 1700s in England as a result of the teachings of John Wesley. John Wesley and his brother Charles were born into a strong Anglican home. While studying at Oxford University in England, John, Charles, and several other students formed a Christian group devoted to Bible study, prayer, and helping the underprivileged. They were labelled “Methodists” as a term of criticism from fellow students because of the orderly way they used rules and methods to go about their religious affairs. The beginning of Methodism as a popular revival movement began in 1738.
Although both Wesley brothers were ordained ministers of the Church of England, they were barred from speaking in most of its pulpits because of their evangelistic methods. They preached in homes, farmhouses, barns, open fields, and wherever they found an audience. Wesley did not set out to create a new church but instead began several small faith-restoration groups within the Anglican church called the United Societies. Soon, however, Methodism spread and eventually became its own separate religion when the first conference was held in 1744.
The Methodist Church believes in prima scriptura, seeing the Holy Bible as the primary authority in the Church and using tradition, reason, and experience in order to interpret it, with the aid of the Holy Spirit.
Methodists believe that faith and good works belong together. What they believe must be confirmed by what they do. Personal salvation must be expressed in ministry and mission in the world. They believe that Christian doctrine and Christian ethics are inseparable, that faith should inspire service.
Methodists believe in the Trinity, which is the concept of one God who reveals himself as God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. They believe in the sacrament of baptism, which may be administered by sprinkling, pouring, or immersion. Baptism is symbolic of repentance and inner cleansing from sin, a rebirth in the name of Christ, and dedication to Christian discipleship. They also believe in the sacrament of communion, where participants symbolically partake of the body (bread) and blood (wine or juice) of Christ.
The United Methodist Church, one of the largest Protestant denominations in the U.S., has recently experienced a significant schism, primarily over issues related to same-sex marriage and the ordination of gay clergy. The disagreement over LGBTQ rights within the United Methodist Church has been ongoing since the 1970s. The issue came to a head in 2019 when the conservative camp, aided by socially conservative United Methodists from Africa, pushed through a resolution affirming existing UMC bans on same-sex weddings and the ordination of “self-avowed practicing homosexuals” as clergy.
By the end of 2023 the United Methodist Church was expected to be significantly less united. A quarter of Methodist congregations in the U.S. are reported to be leaving the United Methodist Church. More than 7,600 of United Methodist’s approximately 30,000 congregations had voted to leave as of December 2023. This is considered the biggest schism in any American denomination in the history of the country. The factions have disagreements in theology, namely how the church considers LGBTQ+ ministers and congregants.
In response to the schism, new denominations have been formed. One group formed the theologically conservative Global Methodist Church in May 2022. On the other hand, a group of theologically progressive United Methodists and others have formed a new denomination known as the Liberation Methodist Connexion (LMX). The full extent of the schism is not expected to be known until the end of 2023, or later. However, it’s clear that this division represents a significant moment in the history of the Methodist Church and American Protestantism more broadly.
Presbyterian Church
The Presbyterian Church traces its roots back to the 16th century and the Protestant Reformation. The church’s history is closely tied to the teachings of John Calvin, a 16th century French reformer, and John Knox, a leader of the Protestant Reformation in Scotland. Knox’s efforts transformed Scotland into the most Calvinistic country in the world and the cradle of modern-day Presbyterianism. In the United States, the Presbyterian Church derives its origin primarily from the Presbyterians of Scotland and Ireland, along with the influence of French Huguenots, and Dutch and German Reformed emigrants.
Presbyterian theology generally emphasizes the sovereignty of God, the authority of the Bible, and the necessity of grace through faith in Jesus Christ. The official creeds, confessions, and beliefs of the Presbyterian Church are contained within a document called The Book of Confessions. This includes the Nicene Creed, the Apostles’ Creed, the Heidelberg Catechism, and the Westminster Confession of faith.
Key beliefs include:
* The Trinity: The belief in the one triune God, the Holy One of Israel, whom alone they worship and serve.
* Jesus Christ Is God: The belief in Jesus Christ, who is fully human and fully God.
* Authority of Scripture: The belief that knowledge of God and God’s purpose for humanity comes from the Bible, particularly what is revealed in the New Testament through the life of Jesus Christ.
* Justification by Grace through Faith: The belief that salvation (justification) through Jesus is God’s generous gift to us and not the result of our own accomplishments.
* Priesthood of All Believers: The belief that it is everyone’s job – ministers and lay people alike – to share the Good News with the whole world.
* Sovereignty of God: The belief that God is the supreme authority throughout the universe.
* Sin: The belief that the reconciling act of God in Jesus Christ exposes the evil in men as sin in the sight of God¹.
* Baptism: The belief that for both adults and infants, Christian baptism marks the receiving of the same Spirit by all his people.
Presbyterian churches are diverse and beliefs can vary among different Presbyterian denominations.
Congregational Church
This church originated from the Puritans of colonial New England. The roots of Congregationalism are found in 16th century Puritanism, a movement that sought to complete the English Reformation begun with the separation of the Church of England from the Catholic Church during the reign of Henry VIII (1509–47).
The Congregational way became prominent in England during the 17th century Civil Wars, but its origins lie in 16th century Separatism. Robert Browne has been regarded as the founder of Congregationalism, though he was an erratic character and Congregational ideas emerged independently of him. His beliefs were advanced by the Separatists, many of whom were severely persecuted under Elizabeth I. A group of Separatists settled in Holland to escape persecution; some of its members later set sail for the New World on the Mayflower in 1620.
In terms of theology, Congregational churches are Protestant churches in the Reformed (Calvinist) tradition practicing congregationalist church governance, in which each congregation independently and autonomously runs its own affairs. They emphasize the right and responsibility of each properly organized congregation to determine its own affairs, without having to submit these decisions to the judgment of any higher human authority.
Congregational Church Christians believe in the spiritual equality and priesthood of all believers. In practice, this means they hold to the Bible and belief in Jesus, but individual members have “the full liberty of conscience in interpreting the Gospel,”. This attitude has led many of them to adopt theological and social liberalism and to participate in the ecumenical movement. (The Ecumenical Movement is a principle that encourages Christians from different denominations to work together to develop closer relationships among their churches and promote Christian unity).
In summary, Congregational churches recognize the sovereignty of Christ over His Church and make that a touchstone of their faith. What some congregational churches fail to recognize is the duty that all believers have to correct and instruct one another.
Assemblies of God
The Assemblies of God Church, also known as the AG Church, is a Pentecostal Christian denomination that traces its roots back to a religious revival that started during the late 1800s and continued through the early 1900s. This revival was characterized by a widespread experience of spiritual manifestations such as speaking in tongues and supernatural healing, giving birth to the Pentecostal movement.
The Assemblies of God Church was formed by a union of several small Pentecostal groups at Hot Springs, Arkansas, in 1914. The denomination was formed from several Finished Work Pentecostal groups who held to the doctrine of progressive sanctification that left the Church of God in Christ (a Holiness Pentecostal denomination), Christian and Missionary Alliance (a Charismatic but non-Pentecostal denomination), and various other denominations, including those of Reformed and Baptist origins.
In terms of theology, the Assemblies of God Church includes both Pentecostal and Evangelical beliefs. The Assemblies of God Church is Trinitarian and embraces the Bible as divinely inspired and the true sovereign rule of faith and behaviour. The Assemblies of God Church believes in the Pentecostal distinctive of baptism with the Holy Spirit with the evidence of speaking in tongues.
The Assemblies of God Church has focused and continues to concentrate on evangelism, missions, and church planting. From its founding attendance of 300, the denomination has grown to more than 2.6 million members in the United States and over 48 million overseas.
Apostolic Church
The Apostolic Church is a Christian denomination that originated from Pentecostal roots in the early 19th century. The name “Apostolic” is derived from the twelve apostles that followed Jesus, whose teachings are paramount for the beliefs of the Apostolic Church.
The Apostolic Church was founded by William Oliver Hutchinson in November of 1909 at the Emmanuel Mission Hall in Bournemouth, England. It quickly grew to be the main office of a vast network of Pentecostal assemblies, recognized as the Apostolic Faith Church. However, in January of 1916, Daniel Powell Williams and some of the Welsh groups separated from Hutchinson and the Apostolic Faith Church over doctrinal concerns, forming the Apostolic Church in Wales (ACW).
In terms of theology, Apostolic Churches strive to promote first-century Christianity in its faith, traditions, and politics with adherence to the doctrines of the Gospels. The mission of the Apostolic denomination has been summarized as: “to make known worldwide the forgiveness of sins through the atoning death of Christ; the baptism in water by immersion; the baptism of the Holy Ghost with signs following; the nine gifts of the Holy Ghost; the five gifts of our Ascended Lord; and the vision referred to in the New Testament as ‘the Church which is His Body’”.
Apostolic theological beliefs are compiled in its confession of faith, known as the Tenets, which include the unity of the Godhead and the trinity of the Persons therein, the utter depravity of human nature, the necessity for repentance and regeneration, and the eternal doom of the finally impenitent.
In summary, the Apostolic Church is a denomination that seeks to emulate the faith, practices, and government of 1st century Christianity, with a strong emphasis on the teachings of Jesus and the apostles.
Apostolic Faith Mission
The Apostolic Faith Mission (AFM) is a classical Pentecostal Christian denomination that originated in South Africa. The AFM was founded by American missionaries John G. Lake and Thomas Hezmalhalch in 1908. The early developments of the AFM are linked to these two individuals who played a major role as missionaries from the United States.
The AFM was established during a time when South Africa was recovering from the Anglo-South African War of 1899-1902. A spiritual awakening became evident in 1908, and as no existing church welcomed the revival in their ranks, Lake and Hezmalhalch started the AFM. The AFM is one of the oldest Pentecostal movements in South Africa with roots in the Azusa Street Revival, the Holiness Movement teachings of Andrew Murray, and the teachings of John Alexander Dowie.
In terms of theology, the AFM is a missional church, which defines itself as agents of God. The beliefs of the AFM are articulated in its Confession of Faith. They believe in the eternal and triune God, with God the Father as the author of creation and salvation. Jesus Christ is the only Son of God the Father, and for the sake of humanity and its salvation, he became flesh and lived among us.
The AFM displays a variety of identities and ministry philosophies, including seeker-sensitive, Word of Faith, Presbyterian, and classical Pentecostal. Significant growth factors have been the prioritization of evangelism accompanied with an emphasis on the supernatural manifestation of the gifts of the Spirit, the active involvement of the laity, their theology of missions revealing a distinctive pneumatology, an eschatological urgency, and a sense of divine destiny.
In summary, the Apostolic Faith Mission Church is a Pentecostal Christian denomination that originated in South Africa, with a strong emphasis on evangelism, the manifestation of the gifts of the Spirit, and the active involvement of the laity.
New Covenant Ministries International
New Covenant Ministries International (NCMI) is a Neo-charismatic Christian church network that was founded by Dudley Daniel in South Africa in the early 1980s. It is currently led by Tyrone Daniel and is active in about 100 countries.
NCMI defines itself as a trans-local ministry team that helps pastors / elders build their local churches and equip Christian believers. Unlike most denominations, individual churches affiliated with NCMI retain their autonomy and are not required to sign a common constitution or statement of beliefs.
In terms of theology, NCMI’s foundational value is that the Bible (specifically, the Protestant canon) is the “only acceptable standard for life, ministry, and conduct in the Church”. As such, NCMI’s theology of church governance is that the early church as described in the New Testament is a God-ordained, prescriptive blueprint that modern local churches should follow.
The NCMI “trans-local team” believes in the five-fold ministry, specifically the belief that the offices of apostle and prophet remain active and valid in the contemporary church, on the basis of Ephesians 4:11–13. In this sense, NCMI could be considered a charismatic restorationist movement.
In their statement of faith, NCMI affirms typical Baptist and Pentecostal beliefs, including biblical inspiration; the Trinity; the humanity, divinity, and resurrection of Jesus Christ; and substitutionary atonement. Distinctive beliefs include the movement’s view of church governance and the restoration of apostolic-prophetic teams. The statement avoids “entrapment in a fixed eschatological view on dispensationalism” and does not take a position on Reformed theology. Partnering local churches are not required to adopt NCMI’s statement of faith.
Dr Brian Drury